The authors wish to thanks Dr Murtala Ahmed Rufa'i and James Barnett and our undisclosed partners in Benin and Nigeria for research support and advice. Thanks to Heni Nsabia, Kingsley Madueke, Mathias Khalfaoui, Grace Ellis and Lucia Bird for review and feedback.

About the authors

Kars de Bruijne is the Head of the Sahel Program and a Senior Research Fellow with the Clingendael’s Conflict Research Unit. He concentrates on West Africa’s coastal states.

Clara Gehrling is a former research intern at the Clingendael’s Conflict Research Unit. She is also Nigeria regional lead at the Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research.

Photo credits

© Sandstorm in Kebbi State, northwest Nigeria. Irene Becker